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GENDER PATTERNS IN HOUSEHOLD HEALTH EXPENDITURE ALLOCATION IN NIGERIA
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Inland habitat environmental sensitivity index mapping and modeling using geographic information systems and remote sensing technology
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SPATIAL VARIATIONS IN ACCESSIBILITY TO SECONDARY SCHOOL FACILITIES IN OYO STATE
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NATIONAL SHIPPING POLICY AND SHIPPING SECTOR DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
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Evaluation of the Education for All-Fast Track Initiative Programme in Cameroon
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Page will reload when a filter is selected or excluded.- Achievement in Mathematics 1 results 1
- Class size 1 results 1
- EFA-FTI in Cameroon 1 results 1
- Environmental Sensitivity Index 1 results 1
- Geographic information systems 1 results 1
- Health seeking behaviour 1 results 1
- Healthcare seeking behaviour among household members often depends on the decision-making structure and headship of the household. In Nigeria, the male is assumed to be de-facto head who takes daily socio-economic household decisions that relate to financial allocations. The implication of this is a possible gender bias in the decision-making and outcomes. While gender bias has been examined within households in Nigeria generally, its incidence and influence on healthcare needs, utilisation and spending have received little or no attention. This study, therefore, analysed gender patterns in household health expenditure allocation in Nigeria through the decision-making processes preceding the expenditure. A non-cooperative bargaining theory of household was applied. It permits individuals to control his or her resources while ensuring they contribute toward the welfare of other members. A combination of the Hurdle model and Engel curve approach was used. The Hurdle model involved healthcare needs, utilization, spending decision and healthcare (conditional) expenditure. The first three stages of the model were estimated through probit technique, while the last stage was estimated through Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) technique. The Engel curve (unconditional healthcare expenditure) was also estimated using OLS. The models were estimated at both household and individual levels. They were structured to take care of life-cycle implications of gender patterns by examining effects of age in years and age groups (0-9, 10-19, 20-39, 40-59 and 60+) on healthcare decisions. Data were drawn from the 2010 Harmonised Nigeria Living Standard Survey (HNLSS) conducted by the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). The survey covered 332,938 individuals drawn from 73,329 households in the six geo-political zones. Analyses were conducted nationally, for urban and rural households and data were analysed at p≤0.05. Significant differences in gender patterns of household health expenditure allocation were observed at both household and individual levels. Females reported a high incidence of illness (β=0.038), utilised more healthcare (β=0.038) and got more conditional health expenditure allocation (β=0.043). At the household level, female groups significantly exhibited more healthcare needs than their corresponding male groups, except in age 0-9 where males exhibited more needs. Also, a similar pro-female pattern was exhibited at utilisation and spending decision stages but different with the pattern of health expenditure. While more spending was allocated to male 0-9, and beyond age 19, the pattern was reversed as females got significant allocations more than their male counterparts at the adult life-cycle. Urban and rural households also followed the pro-female pattern. Generally, health expenditure increased at younger age, declined as individuals grew but later increased at old age. Expenditure by females increased more rapidly compared to males at old age. It was remarkable that females got more allocation than males in household health expenditure by age and location in Nigeria. Therefore, health expenditure allocation, particularly by government, should reflect this pattern and difference. 1 results 1
- Household health expenditure allocation 1 results 1
- Implementation process 1 results 1
- In Nigeria, policies have often failed to achieve set objectives. Although implementation studies have sought to explain policy failures in broad areas of the economy, the shipping sector has often been ignored. This is because such policy studies are largely embedded in the framework of national political economy and public administration. Shipping is located in the interface between national and international political economy. This study investigated the policy dynamics and implementation process of the Nigerian National Shipping Policy and its effects on shipping development in Nigeria. The study adopted survey and case study methods. A questionnaire was administered to 400 purposively selected stakeholders (Shipping companies and banks, Nigerian shippers’ council, Nigerian Merchant Navy, Nigerian chambers of shipping, Nigeria Customs Service, sea farers, importers and exporters). Additional Primary data were derived from in-depth interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). In-depth interviews were conducted with 20 former members of Armed Forces Ruling Council, legislators, ministers, ship-owners, navigators, marine engineers, lawyers, academics, bankers and former Chief Executive Officers of key government agencies. Ten different Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) involving relevant shipping stakeholders were also conducted. Secondary data were drawn from various libraries, commissioned reports and documents from regulatory agencies and the National Bureau of Statistics. Data were subjected to descriptive and content analysis. Policy intervention to induce shipping sector development has remained constrained by domestic and international factors. The implementation of the National Shipping Policy Act, 1987 and the Cabotage Act, 2003, suffered from poor conceptualization and design of programmes, weak execution and monitoring mechanisms. Given the complexity and risks inherent in shipping and the storm of resistance against the policy, it would have required courage, decisiveness, financial and managerial capacity and foresight to successfully implement the policy through carefully thought-out programmes with the backing of stakeholders. National Maritime Authority (NMA), now Nigeria Maritime Administration and Safety Agency, represented a direct opposite. Respondents observed that uncertainty regarding the autonomy of NMA and political interference in its operations (92%), conflicting State policies (86%), corruption and patronage system (89%), hostility of the international community on cargo allocation (89.5%) and capacity of, and instability in the leadership of NMA (87%) weighed heavily, and indeed constituted a cog on the implementation process. Other factors that adversely affected implementation included the political culture of the target group (85%), the near absence of notable shipping entrepreneurial class (75%), effective leadership (70%), technical knowledge and skill (70%), lack of commitment and political will (89%), low level of inter-agency cooperation (86%) and paucity of resources (76%). Poor advocacy strategy by the key stakeholders failed to achieve sustained interest, attention and support of government. The implementing agency of the national shipping sector development policy was unable to actualise the objectives of increasing national fleet, enforcing Nigerian carriage rights and developing maritime manpower. Policy action deviated from policy intention and national shipping promotional policies were used for patronage. The entire policy cycle suffered from an interaction deficit among public officials, target groups and the broad stakeholders. 1 results 1
- Maritime 1 results 1
- Non-cooperative bargaining 1 results 1
- Probit technique 1 results 1
- Remote sensing 1 results 1
- School quality 1 results 1
- Shipping development policy 1 results 1
- Teacher-pupil ratio 1 results 1
- The developing countries of the world have come to realise that issues involving human resource development and basic values may need to receive attention before regional problems can be successfully attacked either directly or indirectly, through sustained national economic growth. Need arises to tackle fundamental structural problems before growth and development can proceed to a point where it positively affects remaining structural problems. In the three preceding decades, Nigerian governments (civilian and military) have made various attempts to drastically raise the income level as well as the standard and quality of life of the people at both urban and regional scales. Since independence, elaborate social welfare programmes (health and education in particular) have always been an important feature of development planning in the old Western Region (now Oyo, Ogun, Ondo, Lagos and Bendel States). Education facilities are among the public services that profoundly affect human well-being the availability of which has far reaching implications for a people's income and quality of life and increases the attractiveness of an area. More recently, Oyo State government acknowledged the need to enhance the quality of life of the people and increase their level of participation in decision-making and access to social opportunity. Between October 1, 1979 and December, 1983, Oyo State government attempted to ensure equality of access to secondary schools in social and physical term by the introduction of 'free education at all levels’ and/or proliferation of secondary schools designed to remove any barriers to the consumption of secondary school education. The policy objectives in this regard have been to improve access to educational resources by distributing them among Local government areas equitably according to need, and to correct territorial injustices and maintain efficiency in the allocation of secondary school education resources among areas. But how far have these objectives been realized? The main thrust of this study is to describe and explain the geographical variations in accessibility to secondary schools among a set of settlements and across Local government areas of the study area. The objectives therefore are to: examine the implications of State government policy (1979-1983) on accessibility of the people to secondary schools; determine the level of provision of secondary schools among Local government areas in relation to needs; examine the extent to which state citizens are better or worse off as a result of government policy on education; examine the extent to which proliferation of secondary school facilities in the State has improved distributional efficiency; and find out the major factors that determine the distribution of secondary schools in a typical region of a Third World country. In doing this work both population and secondary school data were used and they were collected from secondary sources; while data on physical distance from facility location point to user settlement) was generated from the base map. The methods of analysis employed include access opportunity model as put forward by Schneider and Symons (1971), Gini-coefficient, Lorenz curves and ratio of advantage or disadvantage, planning standards as laid down by Ministry of Education and multiple regression model. This study has revealed some facts about the distribution of secondary schools before and after 1979-1983 education programme in the State. The study shows that mass provision of secondary school facilities has increased accessibility of the population in the State to secondary school education. Enrolments in secondary schools increased from about 11% in 1978 to 36.3% in 1983. In 1978 50% of secondary schools was controlled by 39 % of the population of the State but this increased to 45% in 1983. This implies that state government policy on secondary school education has increased people's access to a larger share of the facilities by 6%. Average access opportunity to secondary schools and teachers increased by 140.51 and 108.80 percent respectively in 1983; while total population without secondary schools declined by 54 percent. Total weighted distance declined from 32,009,271 in 1978 to 9,844,663 person kilometres in 1983; while in 1983 mean weighted distance decreased by 49 percent. The mass establishment of secondary schools has also redistributed secondary school facilities in a more egalitarian direction than ever before. The spatial concentration of secondary schools and teachers in urban areas declined by 7 and 3 percent respectively while proportion of the population controlling 50 percent of secondary schools and teacher in the rural areas increased by 13 and 18 percent respectively. Thirdly, the increased number of secondary schools has not improved the distributional optimality with which the facilities were delivered. Inefficiency in the distribution of secondary school teachers and schools was overwhelming during the periods. Proliferation of secondary school facile ties has not altered the inefficiency level of social service delivery system in Nigeria. The level of inefficiency that characterizes the system has remained relatively stable over time. Fourthly, the study has shown that egalitarian approach to the provision of social services has substantially reduced inequalities and inequities in secondary school provision. The result is that disparities between the spatial pattern of need and spatial pattern of secondary school provision got reduced. There was redistribution of services in a more egalitarian direction than before. The study shows that decentralization of schools is less efficient, but it is more equitable in the sense that differences among urban and rural areas, between and within local government areas have been reduced. There was no evidence that State government made any efforts to implement the laid down distributional standards in the provision of secondary schools in the State hence the high level of inefficiency in the distribution of secondary schools among Local government areas of the State. Finally, the relationship between need (population) and provision of secondary school facilities was considerably stronger than any other identified explanatory variables implying that territorial justice exists with regards to the distribution of secondary schools in Oyo State. It shows that social and territorial justices can only be sustained if services are distributed in relation to population (need) rather than on the basis of political considerations. Areas of high population concentration attract social services and other developmental infrastructure than areas of scanty and scattered population. The observed mis-match between enrolments and provision of teachers revealed that the quantitative growth of secondary school resources was not accompanied with development. In the provision of secondary school facilities (1979-1983) there was growth but no development. The structure of this thesis is as follows. Chapter one gives the background to the study; while Chapter two deals with conceptual and theoretical framework and literature review. The extent to which mass provision of secondary schools in the State improved access opportunity to secondary schools in 1983 was examined in Chapter three; while levels of inequity in the distribution of secondary schools among Local government areas, and between urban and rural areas were examined in Chapter four. Although mass provision of secondary school, increases access opportunity of the population to secondary school education, yet it does not improve the optimal distribution of secondary school facilities among Local government areas of the State. Chapter five confirms this postulate; while Chapter six looks at factors that shape the spatial aspects of secondary school facilities in the state. Chapter seven is conclusion. 1 results 1
- The universalisation of primary education made schooling obligatory and free in Cameroon. This resulted in overcrowded classrooms and poor achievement in Language (English and French) and Mathematics. The World Bank (2007) introduced an intervention programme, Education for All-Fast Track Initiative (EFA-FTI) programme, by recruiting 37,200 qualified teachers to reduce class size and teacher-pupil ratio and improve pupils‘ achievement. However, since the inscription of the programme, no study has investigated Cameroon‘s progress towards achieving the EFA-FTI goals. The study, therefore, evaluated the effect of class size and teacher-pupil ratio, teacher effectiveness, teacher job satisfaction, teacher qualification, teacher experience, school location and school type, school infrastructure and pupils‘ proficiency in language on pupils‘ achievement in mathematics. The research was an ex-post facto type which adopted the Context Input Process Product (CIPP) Model. Schools were stratified along types (EFA-FTI and non EFA-FTI) and locations (urban and rural). Simple random sampling was used to select 40 government primary schools from five regions in two educational zones; Francophone (three) and Anglophone (two) with 50 primary six pupils from each class (classes with less than 50 pupils were all taken). In all, 1807 pupils, 40 schools, 40 teachers, 40 head teachers, a World Bank representative, one Government representative and 10 National Pedagogic Inspectors of Education participated in the study. Seven validated instruments were used. Classroom Observation Rating Scale (r=0.86), Head Teacher Material Resources Checklist, Teacher Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (r=0.76), Pupils‘ Evaluation of Teacher Effectiveness Scale (r=0.78), Language Proficiency Test (r=0.72), Pupils Achievement Test in Mathematics (r=0.76) and In-Depth Interview Schedule (r=0.76). Data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics; mean, standard deviation, t-test, Pearson Product Moment correlation and multiple regression at p≤ 0.05 level, while the qualitative data were thematically analysed There was a significant mean difference in class size and teacher-pupil ratio between the EFA-FTI and non EFA-FTI schools (57:75; 1:57 and 1:75, respectively). Pupils‘ achievement in mathematics was negatively related to teacher effectiveness (r=-.017). Pupils from the EFA-FTI schools were more proficient in language (M=54.01) than those from non EFA-FTI schools (M=50.23) but not significantly different in achievement in mathematics. The 10- predictor variables predicted achievement in mathematics (R2=.605, R2 adj =.486, F(9,30)=5.104). The three most significant variables in predicting pupils‘ achievement in mathematics were: proficiency in Language (ß =.627); teacher working experience (ß =-.243) and teacher effectiveness (ß= -.275). High language proficiency (M =78.78) had a high mathematics score (M=64.92) and a low language proficiency (M=42.12) had a low mathematics score (M=39.56). There was attrition due to posting allocations because teachers were often absent in the schools where they were posted to, particularly in the rural areas. The Education For All-Fast Track Initiative programme increased teacher quality and quantity and improved pupils‘ proficiency in Language, did not meet the objective of reducing class sizes (40) and Teacher-pupil ratios (1:40) and did not improve pupils‘ achievement in mathematics in the schools. To reduce attrition, newly posted teachers should sign an undertaking to remain at their places of work for three years before applying for transfer. 1 results 1
- This study applies the Inland ESI mapping model developed by ERML and ESRI for the Niger Delta to the southeastern coastal region of Nigeria. Traditionally ESI mapping had been applied to shoreline areas and the maps typically contain three types of information: shoreline classification in terms of sensitivity to oiling, human-use resources, and biological resources. The ESI shoreline classification scheme is a numeric characterization of the sensitivity of coastal environments and wildlife to spilled oil. ESI was developed to reduce the environmental consequences of a spill and help prioritize the placement and allocation of resources during cleanup efforts. An improvement to the traditional ESI atlas has further been added through the development of ESI for inland/interior areas. This is particularly significant in the Nigeria context where many oil and gas facilities are located in the inland/interior habitats. This study shows that the model developed for the Niger delta is equally applicable to southeast coastal environment. The modeling is done using satellite imagery followed by rigorous field data collection and modeling within Arcview GIS environment. The GIS approach is quite ideal for ESI modeling because of its capability to sequentially overlay different data layers for various kinds of spatial statistical analysis and spatial modeling. The most critical element is the construction of the database: the relational database structure adopted greatly facilitates data search and analytical operations. 1 results 1
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