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Structural controls, 3D geometry and the evolution of copper mineralization at Frontier mine, Zambian Copperbelt
Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2024.
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| Language: | English |
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Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University
2025
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| _version_ | 1867614026052141056 |
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| access_status_str | Open Access |
| author | Fourie, Heike |
| author2 | Kisters, Alexander |
| author_browse | Fourie, Heike Kisters, Alexander |
| author_facet | Kisters, Alexander Fourie, Heike |
| author_sort | Fourie, Heike |
| collection | Thesis |
| dc_rights_str_mv | Stellenbosch University |
| description | Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2024. |
| format | Thesis |
| id | oai:scholar.sun.ac.za:10019.1/131659 |
| institution | Stellenbosch University (South Africa) |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2026-06-10T12:45:29.584Z |
| license_str | Other — see source repository |
| provenance_str_mv | Harvested via OAI-PMH from SUNScholar — Stellenbosch University Repository |
| publishDate | 2025 |
| publishDateRange | 2025 |
| publishDateSort | 2025 |
| publisher | Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University |
| publisherStr | Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University |
| record_format | dspace |
| source_str | SUNScholar — Stellenbosch University Repository |
| spelling | oai:scholar.sun.ac.za:10019.1/131659 Structural controls, 3D geometry and the evolution of copper mineralization at Frontier mine, Zambian Copperbelt Fourie, Heike Kisters, Alexander Basson, Ian Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Science. Dept. of Earth Sciences. Copper -- Central African Copperbelt (Congo and Zambia) Copper mines and mining -- Zambia -- Copperbelt Province Frontier mine -- Central African Copperbelt (Congo and Zambia) Ore deposits UCTD Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2024. ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Frontier Mine was discovered by a regional soil sampling campaign and defines a structurally-controlled vein-hosted Cu deposit within deformed Neoproterozoic sediments of the Katangan Supergroup. This sequence was deposited in a series of intra-cratonic rift basins, hosting Cu-Co deposits defining the Central African Copperbelt and deformed by the Lufilian Orogeny between ~590 and 500 Ma. The deposit is located on the northeastern flank of the Kafue Anticline, a Paleoproterozoic basement dome, within the Zambian Copperbelt, renowned for its sediment-hosted, stratiform copper deposits. The greenschist-facies, tectonostratigraphic package of Frontier Mine has been duplicated by a regional-scale isoclinal recumbent fold which was coaxially refolded by a set of open to closed, upright folds, defining a type three refolded fold pattern (F1/F2). The Frontier Mine differs from other deposits as Cu occurs predominantly as coarse-grained chalcopyrite in quartz-carbonate veins, hosted predominantly within the Mwashya Subgroup of the Katangan Supergroup, and shows a close association to sodic (albite) alteration, where at least three mineralized vein sets are recognized in the pit. Early bedding/S1-parallel veins (Vein Set 1) formed during layer-parallel shear and the onset of recumbent folding (F1). This early vein generation is relatively poorly mineralized, but was associated with a near-pervasive, bedding-parallel albitization and replacement of the mainly metapelitic wall rocks. The reaction hardening process promoted brittle deformation during the subsequent upright refolding (F2) of the rocks and the formation of a second generation of highly-mineralized, saddle-reef type veins (Vein Set 2) in the hinges of particularly upright F2 folds (F1/F2). The controls of Vein Set 2 by fold hinges defines the overall shoot-like geometry of the orebody, parallel to the SE-plunging folds. The subhorizontal orientation and brecciated textures of a subsequent Vein Set 3 underline the formation of veins through continued northeast-southwest shortening of the brittle wall rocks during the lock up of the refolded first-order fold. Successively emplaced vein sets document the close interplay between the progressive structural evolution of the deposit, recording northeast-southwest shortening, and associated hydrothermal fluid flow and alteration (albitization). This close association of progressive deformation, hydrothermal fluid flow and alteration is further constrained by an implicit 3D model, allowing for the integration of outcrop-scale structural data collected in the field, describing the controls of the mineralization (bedding and formation contacts, F1/F2 fold hinges and cross-cutting vein sets), with drillhole data recording downhole lithologies and grade intersections, where a few of these drillholes contain downhole structural logging. The implicit 3D model allows for the visualization of the deposit-scale geometry of the lithologies, Cu mineralization and alteration, and the interchange of these features. Moreover, it permits the visualization of individual oreshoots, furthering the understanding of the position and controls of the high-grade oreshoots on a deposit-scale. The overprinting and structural relationships between vein sets, alteration and the regional fold structures signify the syn-tectonic, long-lived, multi-phase mineralization during the Lufilian Orogeny, making Frontier Mine a distinct and unique deposit in the Zambian Copperbelt. AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Frontier Myn is ontdek deur 'n streeksgrond monsternemingsveldtog en definieer 'n struktureel beheerde herbergbare Cu-afsetting binne vervormde Neoproterosoïese sedimente van die Katangan Supergroep. Hierdie opeenvolging is neergelê in 'n reeks intrakratoniese skeurbekkens wat Cu-Co-afsettings huisves wat die Sentraal-Afrikaanse Kopergordel definieer en deur die Lufiliese Orogenie tussen ~590 en 500 Ma vervorm is. Die afsetting is geleë op die noordoostelike flanke van die Kafue Antiklien, 'n Paleoproterosoïese kelderkoepel, binne die Zambiese kopergordel, bekend vir sy sedimentêre laagvormige koperafsettings. Die groen skisfasiese tektonostratigrafiese pakket van Frontier Myn is gedupliseer deur 'n streekskaal isoklinale lêplooi wat koaksiaal herplooi is deur 'n stel oop tot geslote regop plooie, wat 'n tipe drie herplooide plooi patroon (F1/F2) definieer. Die Frontier Myn verskil van ander afsettings in die gebied, waar Cu hoofsaaklik as grof, korrelrige chalkopiriet in kwarts karbonaatare voorkom, hoofsaaklik in die Mwashya Subgroep van die Katangan Supergroep. Dié are toon 'n noue assosiasie met sodiese (albiet) verandering, waar minstens drie gemineraliseerde aarstelle herken word in die put. Vroeë gelaagdheid/S1-parallelle are (Aarstel 1) was gevorm tydens laagparallelle skuifskeuring en die aanvang van lêplooiing (F1). Hierdie vroeë aargenerasie is relatief swak gemineraliseer, maar was geassosieer met 'n byna deurdringende gelaagdheid, parallelle albitisering en vervanging van die hoofsaaklike metapelitiese wandgesteentes. Die reaksieverhardingsproses het bros vervorming bevorder tydens die daaropvolgende regop plooiing (F2) van die rotse en die vorming van 'n tweede generasie hoogs gemineraliseerde, saalrif tipe are (Aarstel 2) in die skarniere van plooie. Veral in die regop F2 plooie (F1/F2). Die kontroles van Aarstel 2 binne plooiskarniere definieer die algehele lineêre geometrie van die ertsliggaam, parallel met die suidoos duik van die plooie. Die subhorisontale oriëntasie en breksie teksture van 'n daaropvolgende Aarstel 3, onderstreep die vorming van are deur voortgesette noordoos-suidwes verkorting van die bros wandgesteentes tydens plooiarrestasie van die herplooiing van die eerste-orde plooi. Agtereenvolgende aarstelle dokumenteer die noue wisselwerking tussen die progressiewe strukturele evolusie van die afsetting, die noordoos-suidwes verkorting en gepaardgaande hidrotermiese vloeistofvloei en verandering (albitisering). Hierdie noue assosiasie van progressiewe vervorming, hidrotermiese vloeistof vloei en verandering word verder voorgestel deur 'n implisiete 3D-model. Hierdie model maak voorsiening vir die integrasie van struktuurdata wat in die veld ingesamel is, wat die kontroles van die mineralisasie beskryf (gelaagdheid- en formasiekontakte, F1/ F2- plooiskarniere en dwarsgang-aarstelle), met boorgatdata wat litologieë en graad aanteken.Hiermee gepaard is strukturele opmetings van die boorgate. Die implisiete 3D- model maak voorsiening vir die visualisering van die afsettingskaal geometrie van die litologieë, Cu-mineralisering en verandering, en die uitruiling van hierdie kenmerke. Boonop laat dit die visualisering van individuele ertsstroke toe wat die begrip van die posisie en kontroles van die hoëgraadse ertsstroke op 'n afsettingskaal bevorder. Die oordruk en strukturele verwantskappe tussen aarstelle, verandering en die streeksplooistrukture dui op die sintektoniese, langlewende, multifasemineralisering tydens die Lufiliese Orogenie, wat Frontier Myn 'n afsonderlike en unieke afsetting in die Zambiese Kopergordel maak. Masters 2025-02-04T08:57:05Z 2025-02-04T08:57:05Z 2024-12 Thesis https://scholar.sun.ac.za/handle/10019.1/131659 en Stellenbosch University xiii, 95 pages : illustrations, maps application/pdf Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University |
| spellingShingle | Copper -- Central African Copperbelt (Congo and Zambia) Copper mines and mining -- Zambia -- Copperbelt Province Frontier mine -- Central African Copperbelt (Congo and Zambia) Ore deposits UCTD Fourie, Heike Structural controls, 3D geometry and the evolution of copper mineralization at Frontier mine, Zambian Copperbelt |
| title | Structural controls, 3D geometry and the evolution of copper mineralization at Frontier mine, Zambian Copperbelt |
| title_full | Structural controls, 3D geometry and the evolution of copper mineralization at Frontier mine, Zambian Copperbelt |
| title_fullStr | Structural controls, 3D geometry and the evolution of copper mineralization at Frontier mine, Zambian Copperbelt |
| title_full_unstemmed | Structural controls, 3D geometry and the evolution of copper mineralization at Frontier mine, Zambian Copperbelt |
| title_short | Structural controls, 3D geometry and the evolution of copper mineralization at Frontier mine, Zambian Copperbelt |
| title_sort | structural controls 3d geometry and the evolution of copper mineralization at frontier mine zambian copperbelt |
| topic | Copper -- Central African Copperbelt (Congo and Zambia) Copper mines and mining -- Zambia -- Copperbelt Province Frontier mine -- Central African Copperbelt (Congo and Zambia) Ore deposits UCTD |
| url | https://scholar.sun.ac.za/handle/10019.1/131659 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT fourieheike structuralcontrols3dgeometryandtheevolutionofcoppermineralizationatfrontierminezambiancopperbelt |